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Introduction
Language purism and policy Language purism and language policy are closely related in that they attempt to achieve similar ends by different means. Both attempt to control the language's development by creating rules that dictate the acceptable usage of a nation's language. They also attempt to control the expansion of the vocabulary and the evolution of the language by banning new words that are derived from either internal or external sources. Whereas language purism is usually an agenda that is pushed by literary circles, language policy is actual legislation that is intended to preserve a country's linguistic integrity. Whether the means of constraint is achieved through legislative or academic channels, the motives for linguistic purism are held in common. These motives are based on the belief that;
The movement towards linguistic purism can be championed by factions in religious, political, social or cultural arenas. The stimuli for the movement can be internal or external and are often associated with political or social changes. These movements are usually short lived and often lose momentum as the adherents grow tired of the linguistic restrictions. There are several methods that proponents of linguistic purism utilize. Some of these methods include;
The Development of the Italian Language
In the 14th century, Tuscany became the dominant force in both the commercial and literary spheres in Italy. It superceded Florence as the trade capitol of Italy and claimed the three most important authors of the time, Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, as its native sons. Early in the century, Dante Alighieri, commonly known as Dante, wrote the two treatises "De vulgari eloquentia" and "Convivio" which argued that the vulgar language of Italy could easily rival Latin in eloquence and expression. His poem "The Divine Comedy" was the proof positive to these arguments. Francesco Petrarca, commonly known as Petrarch, was well known for his translations from Classical Latin into Vulgar Latin and his philological treatises. His treatise "On the Italian Language"5 was the earliest known treatise on a modern language. It was his love poems, especially "Canzoniere" that illustrated the beauty of the vulgar language and influenced poets well into the 16th century. Boccaccio wrote the model for prose and fiction, "The Decameron." He was the first to write about Dante and was a friend and disciple of Petrarch. Two hundred years later, Pietro Bembo was influenced by the Tuscan masters in his writing of "Prose della vulgar lingua." This three-volume work was a treatise that made a case for the standardization of the language. The first two volumes were philological and etymological works and the third volume was the premier Italian grammar. Bembo emulated Petrarca and Boccaccio in that his model was the language that was being spoken in Tuscany. There were, of course, rivals to Bembo's work. A hand-written grammar attributed to Leon Alberti Batiste, written in 1525, contends that the Roman dialect is far superior to the Tuscan. Despite the controversies, grammarians of the 15th and 16th century attempted to dictate the pronunciation, syntax and vocabulary based on the premise that the 14th century dialect spoken in Tuscany was put forth as the one "true" Italian language. This argument continued until 1582 when the Academia della Crusca was founded. Once established, the Academy was accepted by the people as the authority on all linguistic matters. It created a bridge between the classical Italian and the living Tuscan languages. The Academia della Crusca, which translates into "Academy of the Chaff", was a private organization that was created to maintain the purity of the Italian language. It was the first of its kind to exist in Europe and continues to be a powerful organization to this day. The initial major work of the academy was the publication of a compilation of A. F. Grazzini's "Vocabulario" in 1612. This work codified the official language and continues to be used as the model for similar works in other languages. Three additional editions of vocabularios were published by the original incarnation of the Academy. The second one-volume edition was published in Venice in 1623. The Tuscan government assisted in the publication of the third three-volume edition in 1691 and a fourth six-volume edition in 1729-38. The Academy was abolished in 1783 and reinstated as a public institution in 1811. Work on the 5th edition was started in 1863. In 1923, work on this edition was halted by the suppression of the Academy, despite its having been completed through the letter "O." At this time, the framework and the goals of the organization were redeveloped. On July 8, 1937, it was legislated that the Academy was to become both a philological laboratory that would study the origins of the language and a training ground for the new philologists. Despite the decree, the Academy would attempt to continue with its original work by publishing the Tuscan dictionaries "Vocabulario Pisano" in 1939, "Vocabulario Amiatino" in 1953 and "Vocabulario Versilise" in 1956. Inspired by the First International Congress of Italian Studies in Cambridge in 1953, the government renewed its support of the Academy's lexicographical efforts. In 1965, the President of the Academy, Giacomo Devoto, persuaded the Academy to take on the task of revising the Vocabulario. It proved to be such an overwhelming task that the Academy was force to request assistance from the Consiglio Nazionale della Ricerche or The National Research Council. The project was abandoned in 1982 by the Academy in favor of supporting the CNR in its creation of the center of study Opera de Vocabolario Italiano. The Academy is presently acting as a technical advisor to the center. In November of 1987, the government approved the funding for the Academia's activities in three disciplines.
Despite the attempts at purism and standardization, the Italian language remains complex and diverse. Nearly 100 dialects, which are divided by 3 geographic regions, are being spoken today. Some of these are the:
The Development of the Spanish Language Evidence of the pre-existing cultures' infusion can be detected by their contributions to the Spanish language. The Lugures moved from northern and central Italy into the central and northern regions of Spain. Evidence of their presence is supported by the additions of several suffixes to the Spanish language that are common in the Luguarian language, Ligues, such as "osca" and "usco" and the use of "ona" as a suffix to the names of towns, such as Barcelona, and Tarazona. The Celts invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 800BC and settled in Galicia, north of Portugal. Later they integrated with the Iberos people and formed the Celtiberian region. Their input into the Spanish language includes the naming of cities for soldiers, such as Conimbriga and Lacobriga. By the second century BC, the languages of the pre-Roman Iberian Peninsula were a hodgepodge of the languages of these many cultures. The defeat of Iberian Peninsula by the Romans in 206 BC and the ensuing absorption into the Roman Empire brought about the end of constant tribal warfare and the introduction of a unified law to the land. By 19BC, the land was known as Hispania. The Celtic and Iberian languages disappeared quickly and were replaced by Latin. In the 4th century AD, the Roman emperor Honorius appointed Ataulphus, a Visigoth, as governor of the Hispanic provinces. This was the beginning of 400 years of Visigoth rule. The Visigoths were so romanized at this point that they did not displace the local culture, but wielded their power as a ruling minority. They retained Latin as the lingua franca and allowed the local languages and dialects to remain in use. When the Western Roman Empire fell, those in power in Hispania kept in contact with the rulers of the Eastern empire in an effort to remain part of the empire. With the discovery of relics of St. James in 803AD and the construction of a basilica to his honor in Santiago de Compostela, the influx of French clerics making pilgrimages left their influence on the local language. Spain was once again invaded in 711 by North African Berbers who were allied with the Arabs. The descendants of these invaders became known as the Moors. With this defeat of Roderick, the last of the Goth kings, Spain became an Islamic state and remained under their rule until 1492. The language was heavily influenced by Arabic and was, for a time, written with the Arabic alphabet. In many places, Christian services were held in Arabic. Arabic influences can be seen in the language in many of the city names, such as Cardova, Alhambra, and Granada. Many Spanish words also have Arabic roots, such as alcachofa for "artichoke" and aldea for "village." The Spanish Catholics were the most intent on getting rid of the Arabs and their influences in order to reestablish the standard of "purity" in the language and culture. If the Catholics were seen as the driving force, the Castilians were seen as the strength in the movement to expel not only the Moorish people, but also their language and culture. The Castilian dialect can be traced back to the 9th century AD, but its precursor was a dialect that was formed by a fusion of Italian and the dialects of northern Spain. This intermixture was a result of the involvement of Spanish Aragonites in the local politics and the popularity of Spanish poetry in Italy. This transitional dialect then developed into the Castilian dialect in the vicinity of the town of Burgos in northern-central Spain. The original dialect is called "Castilla viaja" or "Old Castile." After the expulsion of the Moors, the dialect spread to central Spain and by the 11th century was know as "Castilla Nueva" or "New Castile." A newer form of Castilian, formed in Toledo in the 16th and 17th centuries, is the Castilian that is spoken today. The earliest written examples of the romance languages in Castilia and Euskara are the "Glossæ Æmilianensæ7 " that were written in the margins of Latin texts found in the monastery of San Millan de la Cogolla in La Rioja, Spain. Along with the translations of individual words were entire phrases of Castilian, which gives us some insight into the syntax and structure of the language. The largest part of the "Glossæ Æmilianensæ" was the doxology on the sermon of St. Augustus. Following the ecclesiastical works were the earliest examples of Spanish literature, which were integrated into the Moorish poetry known as the "Jarchas." The poem "El Cid", which is attributed to an anonymous troubadour, was the earliest full-length work. It appeared some time in the early 12th century. Later versions, entitled "Gesta de Myo Cid" and "Cantares de Myo Cid" were written about the hero Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, who died in 1099. Alfonso X, the "Learned King" of Castile and Leon, sponsored the initial works of a large body of literature in the Spanish language. Not only were historical chronicles, legal and astronomical works written in Castilian, which was the dialect in the area of Toledo, but works in Greek, Latin and Arabic were also translated into Castilian. At this point, Castilian became the language of the Spanish government and administration. The creation of the first primer in Castilian by Sancho IV between 1284 and 1295 and the first original novel in Castilian, "Caballero Cifar", created preliminary standards for Castilian as the national language. The first Castilian grammar "El arte de la lengua castellana", written by Elio Antonio de Nebrija, was published in 1492. Nebrija's goal was to standardize the Castilian language and to give it political clout. According to Nebrija, "The language is first of all a cultural instrument, but also an instrument to the service of the crown"8 and "The language is always a companion of the Empire."9 The year 1492 was not only important for Spain in terms of language development, but also in terms of cultural purism. In this year, the last of the Moors were expelled from Spain, concluding the process that had its start in Seville in 1248. With the discovery of America by Columbus, Castilian was declared the official language of the newly-conquered lands as well as the written and educational standard for Spain. In 1596, Phillip II reiterated this declaration with an edict proclaiming Castilian as the official language, although local dialects remained the language of the underclass in their everyday life. In 1611, Sebastian de Covarrubias created the first Castilian dictionary. This work provided etymologies along with definitions. In 1711, La Real Academia Española was established. It was modeled after the French Academy, which was established in 1625. The mission of the Academy was to sanction a standard of language and create an authority that would approve any changes that were to be made to the language. By this time, the pronunciation and spelling of the Castilian dialect had been established. This form is what we now know as Modern Castilian. The first official dictionaries that were published by the Academy in 1726 and 1739 were followed by the first official grammar in 1771. Castilian was declared to be the official language for all clerical, administrative, judiciary and ecclesiological communications. From 1776 to 1815, the Academy continually simplified and refined the language pursuant to the motto "Limpia, fija y da splendor" or "Cleans, fixes and gives shine". The term "Castilian" was used for the language in Spain and its colonies until 1925, at which time the Academia adopted the term "Spanish". The Spanish language has gone through three major eras. The Medieval period, which existed between the 10th and 15th centuries, was dominated by the Castilla Viaja. The Modern period of the 16th and 17th centuries was dominated by the Castilla Nueva and the Contemporary Period, which was established by the foundation of the Academy, is dominated by the Castellano Moderno. Although Castilian is the official language, many dialects continue to be spoken in Spain. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 declares Castilian as the national language, but also protects the rights of the people to speak the local dialect. Some of these dialects are:
Like the development of Spanish, the development of language in France from Vulgar Latin to Contemporary Modern French can be said to be divided into eras. The six eras are Gallo-Romance, Old French, Middle French, Early Modern French, Classical Modern French and Contemporary Modern French. The language's development can be paralleled by a chronology of the invasions and conquests of the country. The earliest known occupants of what was once known as Gaul were the Lugurians. These pre-historic people populated the Mediterranean region from approximately 1000 to 500 BC. In approximately 500-400 BC, the Celts invaded Province. The Celtic language and culture eventually became integrated with the Lugurians. This was roughly the same period in which the Greeks established centers of commerce in Nice, Monaco and Antibes. During this era, Greek words were infused into the local dialect. Although Gaius Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in 58-51BC, the Gallo-Romance era was established by the defeat of the Celts in Gaul by the Romans in 122 BC. By the end of the 4th century AD, Vulgar Latin had replaced Celtic as the dominant language. Although the Celtic language was supplanted by Latin, it did not wipe it out entirely. There remains to this day approximately 50 words in French that come directly from Celtic. Examples include the French word alouette, meaning "lark", which is a derivative of the Celtic alauda and the French word char, meaning "car", which is a derivative of the Celtic carruca. After the Roman invasion, Gaul was consecutively invaded by the Visigoths, Bourguignons and Franks. Although they did not replace Vulgar Latin with their own languages, they did leave imprints on the language. The Germanic word franko, which meant "freeman" became franc for "free" and Française. By the end of the 6th century, theological texts had been translated into the local Romance dialect and by the end of the Gallo-Romance era, Vulgar Latin in Gaul had taken on some of the characteristics of Old French. The earliest written example of the Gallo-Romance language can be found in the "Reichenau Glosses" 11 in the Vulgate Bible of St. Jerome. This Bible, dating from the 8th century, contains notes that not only translate difficult or obscure phrases in Vulgar Latin into the Romance language of the day, but also notes words loaned from the Germanic language. It was during this time period that Charlemagne decreed that all masses must be held in the local Romance language, which made these translations into the local dialect even more critical. The era of Old French is said to be between the 9th and the 13th centuries. By this time, the language had split into three families. These three families, Provençal, Langue d'oc and Langue d'oïl, encompassed between 600 and 700 dialects. Provençal was the first dialect to be created by mixing Vulgar Latin and the local "barbarian" tongue. The first grammar for a modern European language is the 12th century "Donat Provençal." Langue d'oc was spoken in the south and its earliest written example is contained in the Strasbourg Oaths which are dated 842 AD. Langue d'oïl, and its 5 dialects, were spoken in the five provinces of Northern Gaul. These families, which were named for their ensuing regions, were Île de France, Normandie, Picardie, Pitou and Bougogne. Its body of literature dates from the 10th century. In 987, King Capet declared Paris to be the official seat of government. With this emphasis on Paris and its surrounding region of Île de France, Langue d'oc became the dominant dialect. If you wanted to be heard in court, you spoke the King's language. Langue d'oïl faded in use and importance, but there remains 500 words in Contemporary Modern French that are descendants of Langue d'oc, such as bague for "ring" and cadeau for "gift." The 12th and 13th centuries saw a rise in popularity of the Francien dialect of Île de France throughout Europe. As Louis IX, who reigned from 1226 to 1270, was the most influential monarch in Europe, his influence spread the use of Francien throughout the south of Gaul. It was during this time period that the language was first referred to as "French." Not only was French the language of the King's Court, it was also the court language of Naples and the administrative language in England. It was spoken by the elite of Germany and taught in their upper-class schools. By the 13th century, it was widely used in literary works outside of France, such as the journals of Marco Polo that were written in 1298. By the end of the 13th century, the French language had split into two forms--the written form and the spoken form. Those who wished to develop the written form were heavily influenced by the use of Latin, which they felt would heighten the grace and nobility of the language. Arabic influences brought in by the returning crusaders infiltrated the language. Such words as chiffre for "number", épinard for "spinach" and jupe for "skirt" came directly from Arabic. The 14th and 15th centuries ushered in Middle French
while the nation was being devastated by the Hundred Years War. The
country was ravaged by plague, poverty and starvation. The old feudal
order was being destroyed and a new social order was being built on
the ideals of ethics and intellectual idealism. As a consequence of
these bad times, the struggling people developed a strong sense of nationality.
The language of the King's Court became a national symbol and guiding
light for all who were French. French was not only the language of the
Court; it was also the language of literature and public administration.
The written French language continued to borrow more and more words
from Latin. Most of these have been dropped from the language, but some,
such as déduction, disputer and incarcération have remained.
As the written language was being buried in "Latinisms", the
spoken language was becoming simpler by the dropping of many diphthongs
and tripthongs and the dropping of final consonants. The spoken language
was the language of the people while the written language was that of
the educated elite and adherents of the Royal Court. The spoken language
continued to move forward in its development while the written language
seemed to move backwards in time towards its Latin roots. This invasion
of "Latinisms" was protested by many of the writers of the
time. By the end of the 16th century, France had become the most heavily populated country in Europe. They had a regular standing military force and their conquests had spread the French language throughout the world. French had become the language of science. Chemists, doctors, historians, astronomers and writers such as Montaingne and Rabelais all wrote in French. The French that was being spoken could be divided into 3 genres; French, a mixture of French and local dialects and local dialects. The further one lived from Paris, the more heavily one spoke in a dialect. The four editions of the "Dictionaire François-Latin" by Robert Estienne were published from 1593 to 1628 with the titles "Dictionarium", "Dictionaire francoislatin", "Dictionarium Latinogallicum" and "Dictionarium puerorum latinogallicum." These contained not only the first comprehensive lexicon of French words, but also recorded the use of the word "dictionary" for the first time. A rudimentary thesaurus "Thresor de la langue Françoyse" by Jean Nicot and Aymar de Rançonnet was published in 1606. The use of these books was mainly restricted to those who desired to write prose in Latin. Classical Modern French came into its own in the 17th
and 18th centuries. The addition of Spanish words such as cigare and
nègre was a byproduct of military conflicts between the two countries.
Contact with Germany during military conflicts introduced words such
as blocus for "blockage" and cible for "target."
By 1661, France had acquired the provinces of Brittany, Lorraine, Alsace,
Roussillon, Artois, Flanders and Franche-Comté. While the middle
and upper class prospered, the lower class suffered. This division was
both economic and linguistic. Only 20% of the population spoke the French
of the court while the rest of the nation spoke either a combination
of a dialect and French or solely a dialect. At the same time, French
had become the lingua franca for all of Europe. All administrative correspondence
with Germany and the French colonies were carried out in French and
the literary works of François de Malherbe set the standard for
vocabulary, syntax and poetics. The purpose of this dictionary was to catalog all the words in the French language that were deemed worthy for use by the best writers and orators of the country. Work began on the first edition in 1639 and culminated with its publication in 1694. This process of purification involved purging the language from "Italianisms", outdated expressions, expressions from the various dialects, technical and overtly academic expressions and all slang. The scope of the language was reduced and the expansion of the language via the adoption of foreign expressions was brought to a halt. With the publication of this dictionary, the wide-spread availability of formal education to the elite and the access to printed materials in an international venue, this standard of Classical Modern French became well-known throughout the world. Although the writers of the day, such as Fountain, Pascal, and Rouchdfoucald wrote in this new style of Malherbe, this new standard did not trickle down to the majority of the population. As in the rest of Europe at the time, there was approximately a 99% illiteracy rate. Pursuant to the creation of the Academy, several language councils were created with the goal of the enforcement of the purification of the language. Among these newly-created councils, the Grammatical Council that was especially adamant that technical and scientific terms were too crude to be included in the officially sanctioned form of the language. The revolution in 1789 bolstered feelings of nationalism among the people. This was the first time that pride in the local language was equated with nationalistic pride. Maintaining the purity of the French language was no longer solely a matter of interest to the private institutes and Academy-- it had become a national priority of the newly-formed government. It was believed that by teaching the people a standardized language, the playing field between the classes would be leveled. A war on patois was fueled in 1794 with Henri-Baptiste Gregoire's essay "Sur la nécessité et les moyens d'anéantir le patois, et d'universaliser l'usage de la langue française." The war on patois was formalized by the "Décret de Thermidor", which was enacted July 20, 1794. With this decree, all official documents, in either the public or private sector, were to be written in French and only French. If a document was written in any other dialect, or if anyone received a document written in anything but French, he could be imprisoned for six months. Although the lack of educational facilities and qualified teachers to the underclass made the teaching of French spotty, at best, the common people started to learn French so that they could keep up with what was happening with the new government. The French that the every-day person was learning was more than likely a combination of the local dialect and official French, but they learned enough to get them by. This introduction to the official French language was furthered by the availability of newspapers in the countryside and the mandatory military service for all males over the age of 18. While in the service, one would meet people from all over the country who spoke many dialects. The common ground for communication was the official French. The use of French in the Traité de Rastadt, signed December 11, 1797, established French as the language of international diplomacy. The development of the Academy and the various councils continued with the creation of the Institute de France in 1795. This new institute took over updating of the dictionary to include words that had been created after the revolution. Among these new words were divorcer, guillotiner and bureaucrate. Although the use of the official French language was becoming more common in France, this was the era of the Napoleonic conquests. The aggression to her neighbors caused the countries surrounding France to reject the use of French in any official capacity. The 18th century witnessed the expansion of capitalism, industrialization, sciences and philosophies that were not based on the teachings of the church. Outside influences on the language increased, especially influence from Great Britain. Resources in the official French language became routinely available in the form of monthly newspapers, scientific, technical and political journals. By the middle of the century, a popular press had appeared that catered to the common people and fostered their desire to become literate. Most people did not speak the official French on a day-to-day basis but did have a rudimentary knowledge of the language. As factories sprang up in the countryside, it became necessary to learn the official form of the language in order to become employed. The importance of education to the masses increased as the industrial revolution progressed. The largest obstacle to the education of the masses was the Church. The clergy claimed that not only was the education of the ordinary person in the official French language useless, it was also dangerous. All services were held in the local patois. Institutes of higher education, which were run by the church, required that all subjects be taught in Latin. As the church remained entrenched in Latin, the French that was spoken by the people was continuing to evolve with the infiltration of Spanish, Italian and German words. Grammarians accepted these changes if they were instigated by the upper class but rejected them if they were employed by the lower classes. It was felt that changes initiated by the upper classes enhanced the language while changes initiated by the lower classes triggered its corruption. It was also during this time that loaner words from the English language were having a recognizable impact. The knowledge of French was extended from the elite to all Europeans and was considered an indicator of refinement. The use of French was so prevalent that the English created the word "Gallomanie", which is defined as the tendency to blindly admire all that is French. The genesis of Contemporary Modern French coincides with the turn of the 19th century. With the Restoration and the creation of Louis XVIII's and Charles V's non-democratic monarchies came conflicts between those who wanted to expand the language and those who wanted to preserve the existing form of the language. The government made primary schools available to the public, but not obligatory. The texts for these schools were written in French and the first French grammar, "Grammaire Française", written by Noël and Chapsal, was published in 1823. The Second Republic, proclaimed in 1848 under Napoleon III, witnessed a vast expansion of the language. The call to arms once again created a setting for the intermingling of people from all over the country. The expansion of the sciences of archaeology, paleontology, zoology and linguistics enriched the language immeasurably. Printed materials were more readily available than ever and both the Littré and Larousse dictionaries were published. By 1850, the language had become standardized. Serialized novels by popular authors, such as Hugo, Vigny and Musset were carried in newspapers. The availability of these novels helped the public to learn the officially sanctioned vocabulary, syntax and grammar. Pronunciation standards were created and accepted between the revolution and World War I. By the end of the Second Republic, all French people were acquainted with, if not fluent in, the standardized French. The Third Republic was declared in 1870 and remained in place until 1940. The language was heavily infiltrated by English loaner words. With the adoption of the "Loi De Ferry" in 1881, it was required that all children attend schools that were run by the state. The speaking of any patios, which was strictly forbidden in school, was met with strict punishment. With the beginning of the 20th century, the government embarked on a course of language policy that continues to the present day. The initial decrees for the standardization of the spelling and syntax of the French language were enacted in 1900 and 1901. Throughout the 20th century, France enacted more language policy laws than at any other time. The majority of these laws were aimed at limiting the number of English words that were adopted into the language. French was declared the official language of France in 1958. In 1965, the linguistician Pierre Guiraud claimed that 700 English words had been adopted into the French language since the end of World War I. The full impact of the Anglicization of the language can be understood with the knowledge that the number of English words in the French language has increased from 8 in the 12th century to approximately 2500 in the 21st century.12 Legislation designed to negate this corruption of the French language has taken many forms. In 1966, Charles De Gaulle fashioned the "Haut Comité de défense et d'expansion de la langue française" to halt the infiltration of Anglaise into the French language. In 1972, the Departments of Terminology and Neology were created to craft technical terms in French that would take the place of the equivalent Anglicized terms. Such substitutions as baladeur for "walkman" and logiciel for "software" were adopted. In 1975, the law "Bas-Lauriol" banned the use of English from television and radio broadcasting and all public advertising. New legislation has been enacted on a regular basis from 1958 to the present day concerning the use of French in television, radio, advertising, legal documents, and in the educational system. The latest wave of legislation is aimed toward the technical terminology of the internet. Terms such as le toile, meaning a spider's web, for "The World-Wide Web" and le jeune pose, meaning the "young sapling", for a start-up company have been approved for use by the Commission of Terminology and Neology. Today, it is not the Academy or the legislature that truly sets the standards of everyday speech for the French people, but the ever-changing culture. Newly-inspired waves of nationalism in the francophone countries encourage the speaking of patois as a symbol of national pride. The three main organizations that are the guard dogs of the pure French language are the Academie Française in France, L'association française de la terminologi" in Belgium and Quebec and the international Conseil international des langues françaises. Although the most recent declaration that French is the national language was enacted in 1958, many dialects are still spoken in France. These dialects can be divided into 5 geographical regions. These are:
Along with the various dialects, the language of the Occitan, from the Langue D'oc, is still spoken in the South. Breton, the language of Brittany, is officially recognized by the government as a separate language and language policy in the region requires that all public signs, such as street and highway signs, be written in French and Breton14.
2. Schiffman, Harold "Purism as language policy"
(12/3/98)
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/540/handouts/emotion/sentimen/node5.html 3. ibid 4. Bibliotheca Augusina Collectio Textuum Electronicorum
6. Ravizza,Filippo and Manzoni, Franco "Manifesta in Difesa della Lingua" La Libreria di Dora (23 Settembre 2000) 7.Batzarov, Zdravko, editor "Glossæ Æmilianensæ"
(9/15/02) 8. Zamora, Sergio "Los orígenes y el desarrollo
de nuestra lengua" 9. ibid 10. Real Academia Española http://www.rae.es/ (2001) 11. Zdravko Batzarov, Editor "The Reichenau Glosse" http://www.orbilat.com/Proto-
Romance/Vulgar_Latin/Vocabulary/Reichenau_Glosses.htm 12. Sokol, Daniel K "LINGUA NON GRATA An Informal
Look at the Invasion of Anglicisms and Americanisms in Modern French" 13. Zdravko Batzarov "French Language, General Overview"
(September 15 2002) 14. ibid
Azia, Miriam and Van Parijs. "Linguistic Legislation
for XXIst Century Europe" Provisional Crist, Sean "Appendix Probi" Indo European Resources
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